Browse DFOL
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- 1.1 What Is a Derivative?
- 1.2 Common Features of All Derivative Instruments
- 1.3 Types of Derivative Instruments
- 1.4 Key Differences Between Option-Based and Forward-Based Derivatives
- 1.5 Exchange-Traded and Over-the-Counter Derivatives
- 1.6 Key Differences Between Exchange-Traded and Over-the-Counter Derivatives
- 1.7 Types of Underlying Interests (Commodities, Financials)
- 1.8 Why Are Derivatives Useful?
- 1.9 Operational Considerations
- 1.10 Who Uses Derivatives and to What Extent Are They Used?
- 1.11 The New CIRO Regulatory Landscape
- 1.12 Emerging Asset Classes (ESG and Crypto Derivatives)
- 1.13 Technology in Derivatives Trading (Electronic Platforms, Algorithmic Trades)
- 1.14 Overview of Bourse de Montréal and Other Global Derivatives Exchanges
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- 2.1 A Brief Overview of Forward-Based Derivatives
- 2.2 A History of Forwards
- 2.3 What Is a Forward Agreement?
- 2.4 What Is a Futures Contract?
- 2.5 Organized Futures Markets
- 2.6 Buying and Selling a Futures Contract
- 2.7 Cash Settlement
- 2.8 Margin Requirements and Marking-to-Market
- 2.9 Futures Trading and Leverage
- 2.10 Reading a Futures Quotation Page
- 2.11 Contract Size and the Value of the Underlying Interest
- 2.12 CIRO Oversight and Margin Guidelines for Futures
- 2.13 Key Global Futures Exchanges (Comparison to Bourse de Montréal)
- 2.14 Electronic Order Routing and Market Data Feeds
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- 3.1 A Brief Overview of Futures Pricing
- 3.2 Futures Market vs. Cash Market
- 3.3 Cost of Carry
- 3.4 Basis
- 3.5 Cash and Carry Arbitrage
- 3.6 Reverse Cash and Carry Arbitrage
- 3.7 Conditions that Facilitate Arbitrage
- 3.8 Inverted Markets
- 3.9 Convergence
- 3.10 Practical Pricing Examples in Canadian Markets (e.g., Interest Rate & Index Futures)
- 3.11 Seasonal Basis Factors & Monetary Policy Impact
- 3.12 Scenario Analysis (Volatility & Interest Rate Shifts)
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- 6.1 The History of Options
- 6.2 Key Option Terminology and Definitions
- 6.3 Application of Key Terms and Definitions
- 6.4 Why Investors Buy Options
- 6.5 Why Investors Write Options
- 6.6 Other Related Benefits of Options
- 6.7 Advantages of Exchange-Traded Options vs. OTC Options
- 6.8 Reading Option Quotations
- 6.9 Common Questions Pertaining to the Options Market
- 6.10 Role of CIRO and the Bourse de Montréal in Regulating Listed Options
- 6.11 Retail Growth in Options Markets (Lower Commissions, Educational Platforms)
- 6.12 Introduction to Option Greeks (Beyond Delta)
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- 9.1 Overview of the Swap Market
- 9.2 What Is a Swap?
- 9.3 Role of the Swap Dealer
- 9.4 History of Swaps
- 9.5 OTC Derivatives Market Reform
- 9.6 CIRO/CSA Requirements for Swap Transactions (Trade Reporting, Clearing)
- 9.7 Bilateral vs. Cleared Swaps
- 9.8 ESG & Sustainability-Linked Swaps
- 9.9 Cross-Border Swaps Considerations
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- 10.1 Plain Vanilla Interest Rate Swap
- 10.2 Rate & Day Count Conventions
- 10.3 The Structure of an Interest Rate Swap
- 10.4 Pricing an Interest Rate Swap
- 10.5 Indication Pricing Schedule
- 10.6 Credit Risk
- 10.7 Terminating an Interest Rate Swap
- 10.8 Why Interest Rate Swaps Are Used
- 10.9 Deliverable Interest Rate Swap Futures & Centrally Cleared Swaps
- 10.10 Other Types of Interest Rate Swaps
- 10.11 Swaptions
- 10.12 Transition from CDOR to CORRA in Canada & Global LIBOR Phase-Out
- 10.13 Mandatory Clearing Thresholds for Certain Swaps
- 10.14 Advanced Uses (Hedging Corporate Bonds or Floating-Rate Notes)
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- 11.1 The Structure of a Currency Swap
- 11.2 Currency Swaps as a Portfolio of Fixed- and/or Floating-Rate Bonds
- 11.3 Pricing of Currency Swaps
- 11.4 Reasons for Currency Swaps
- 11.5 Managing FX & Settlement Risks
- 11.6 Emerging Markets Currencies (Liquidity, Volatility)
- 11.7 Reporting Cross-Currency Swaps to Trade Repositories
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- 12.1 Credit Derivatives
- 12.2 The Role of Credit Derivatives
- 12.3 The Structure of Credit Default Swaps (CDSs)
- 12.4 What are Index CDSs?
- 12.5 Why are CDSs and Index CDSs Used?
- 12.6 New Regulatory Requirements (Clearing/Reporting) for Credit Derivatives
- 12.7 Credit Event Settlement (Bankruptcies, Restructurings)
- 12.8 Standardization via ISDA & Market Trends (Index-Based CDS)
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- 14.1 Regulatory Framework for Canadian Investment Funds and Structured Products
- 14.2 Use of Derivatives in Mutual Funds
- 14.3 Risks of Derivatives Use by Mutual Funds
- 14.4 Limits on Derivative Use & Leverage (under CIRO/CSA Rules)
- 14.5 Disclosure of Derivative Strategies in Simplified Prospectuses
- 14.6 Custodians’ Role in Monitoring Exposure
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- 15.1 Use of Derivatives by Alternative Mutual Funds and Closed-End Funds
- 15.2 Hedge Funds Compared to Alternative Mutual Funds
- 15.3 Types of Alternative Strategies
- 15.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Derivatives
- 15.5 Expanded Hedge Fund Strategies (Global Macro, Managed Futures, Relative Value)
- 15.6 Valuation & Liquidity Challenges in Alternative Products
- 15.7 Operational Due Diligence (Prime Brokers, Service Providers)
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- 16.1 Principal-Protected Notes (PPNs) – What Are They?
- 16.2 PPN Structures and the Use of Derivatives
- 16.3 CPPI and Zero-Coupon Bond Plus Call Option Structures – Key Differences
- 16.4 CSA Disclosure Standards for PPNs
- 16.5 Embedded Derivatives & Credit Risk to Issuer
- 16.6 Comparing PPN Structures with Other Structured Notes
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- 18.1 Introduction to Bullish Strategies
- 18.2 The Long Call Strategy
- 18.3 The Married Put (Protective Put)
- 18.4 The Covered Call Strategy
- 18.5 Additional Bullish Strategies: Bull Call Spread & Short Put
- 18.6 Greek Considerations for Bullish Strategies
- 18.7 Suitability, Risk Tolerance, and CIRO Guidance
- 18.8 Risk and Reward Analysis for Bullish Strategies
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- 19.1 Understanding the Bearish Outlook
- 19.2 Strategy: Long Put
- 19.3 Strategy: Short Call (Naked Call)
- 19.4 Strategy: Bear Put Spread
- 19.5 Strategy: Bear Call Spread
- 19.6 Protective Call or Synthetic Short
- 19.7 Greek Considerations for Bearish Strategies
- 19.8 Scenario Analysis and Stress Testing
- 19.9 Concluding Remarks and Additional Resources
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- 20.1 Introduction to Volatility Strategies
- 20.2 Long and Short Volatility Approaches
- 20.3 Straddles, Strangles, and Combinations
- 20.4 The Role of Greeks in Volatility Strategies
- 20.5 Volatility Crush & Earnings Plays
- 20.6 Options Stress Testing & Risk-Adjusted Returns
- 20.7 Iron Condors, Butterflies, and Other Volatility Spreads
- 20.8 Additional Resources and Concluding Remarks
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- 21.1 Options Regulation
- 21.2 Individual Registration Categories
- 21.3 Registrant Code of Ethics
- 21.4 Registrant Standards of Conduct
- 21.5 Trading and Sales Practices
- 21.6 Regulations Covering Registrants Employed by CIRO Investment Member Firms or Approved Participants of the Bourse
- 21.7 Conflicts of Interest & Best Execution (CIRO Guidelines)
- 21.8 Client Relationship Model (CRM) Enhancements for Derivatives
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- 22.1 Completion and Approval of Option Account Application Forms
- 22.2 Significant Items of Information on the Option Account Application Form
- 22.3 Unanswered Questions on the Option Account Application Form
- 22.4 Responsibility for Final Acceptance of an Option Account
- 22.5 Completion of the Derivatives Trading Agreement Prior to Option Transactions
- 22.6 Risk Disclosure Statement
- 22.7 Applying a Suitability Concept to Option Recommendations
- 22.8 Managed Accounts and Simple Discretionary Accounts
- 22.9 Transfer of Option Accounts
- 22.10 Commissions
- 22.11 Digital KYC Processes & Ongoing Suitability Monitoring
- 22.12 Margin Expansion & Frequent Trading Alerts
- 22.13 Electronic Recordkeeping Requirements
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- 23.1 Basic Margin Terms
- 23.2 Factors Affecting the Amount of Margin Required
- 23.3 CIRO and Bourse de Montréal Minimum Margin Requirements for Equity and Index Option Strategies
- 23.4 Meeting Margin Calls
- 23.5 Capital Requirements for Firm and Market Maker Accounts
- 23.6 Member Firm Clearing Deposit Requirements at the Clearing Corporation
- 23.7 Updates in Margin Rules Post-Pandemic Volatility
- 23.8 Stress Testing Client Positions
- 23.9 Handling Complex Structured Option Spreads and Margins
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- 24.1 Essential Information Required for All Types of Orders
- 24.2 Order Ticket Information Unique to Options
- 24.3 A Generic Order Entry Screen
- 24.4 Types of Buy and Sell Orders
- 24.5 Types of Contingent Orders
- 24.6 Implied Orders and the Bourse de Montréal’s Implied Pricing Algorithm
- 24.7 The Bourse de Montréal’s User-Defined Strategies (UDS) Functionality
- 24.8 Algorithmic & High-Frequency Order Entry Controls
- 24.9 Time-Stamps & Regulatory Reporting Requirements
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- 25.1 Professional vs. Non-Professional Option Traders
- 25.2 Federal Tax Consequences for Non-Professional Traders
- 25.3 Federal Tax Consequences for Professional Traders
- 25.4 Tax Consequences for LEAPS® Investors
- 25.5 Allowable Use of Exchange-Traded Options in RRSPs, RRIFs, and RESPs
- 25.6 Recent CRA Interpretations on Derivatives
- 25.7 Tax Implications of Derivative Overlays in Balanced/Equity Portfolios
- 25.8 Tracking Adjusted Cost Base (ACB) in Complex Strategies
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- 26.1 Opening Corporate Option Accounts
- 26.2 Opening Option Accounts for Acceptable Institutions
- 26.3 Know Your Client (KYC) Rule for Institutional Clients
- 26.4 Permissible Option Transactions for Pension Plans, Insurance Companies, and Trust Companies in Canada
- 26.5 Canadian Mutual Funds
- 26.6 Multi-Layer Sign-Offs & Corporate Board Approvals
- 26.7 Additional Documentation (ISDA Protocol for Institutions)
- 26.8 Asset Managers and Pension Plans: Derivatives Governance
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- 28.1 What is an Options Exchange?
- 28.2 Providing a Trading Forum
- 28.3 Adding and Deleting Option Classes
- 28.4 Adding and Deleting Option Series
- 28.5 Expiration Cycles on the Bourse
- 28.6 Setting Reporting Levels, Position Limits, and Exercise Limits
- 28.7 Setting Capital and Margin Rules
- 28.8 Developing and Administering Rules Governing the Marketplace and Approved Participants Dealing in Options
- 28.9 Recent Technology Upgrades & Matching Engines
- 28.10 Cross-Border Coordination with U.S. Exchanges
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- 32.1 Introduction to Derivatives
- 32.2 Key Differences Between Exchange-Traded and Over-the-Counter Products
- 32.3 Exchange-Traded Options: Pricing, Hedging, and Speculating
- 32.4 OTC Options: Caps, Floors, Collars, and Exotic Options
- 32.5 Swaps: Basic Features, Role of the Swap Dealer, and Types of Swaps
- 32.6 How Investment Funds and Structured Products Use Derivatives
- 32.7 The Function of Exchanges and Clearinghouses
- 32.8 OTC Forwards and Other Futures Contracts
- 32.9 Determining Client Suitability
- 32.10 Strategies Based on Market Outlook and Risk Tolerance
- 32.11 Entering Orders
- 32.12 Executing Orders on Exchanges
- 32.13 Payment for Options, Exercise Assignment, or Option Expiry
- 32.14 Tax Implications of Listed Options Trading
Chapter 4: Hedging with Futures Contracts
In this section
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Hedging
Learn how to reduce or offset price risks in various markets by taking offsetting positions in futures contracts. Explore the fundamentals of hedging, key considerations, real-world examples, and the Canadian regulatory environment.
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Types of Hedges
Explore short and long hedge strategies with futures contracts to protect against price volatility, featuring practical examples, rolling hedges, and references to Canadian regulations.
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Imperfect Hedges
Discover how imperfect hedges can still mitigate risks in futures-based hedging, understanding basis risk, timing mismatches, contract size challenges, and real-world scenarios. Learn best practices for Canadian markets under CIRO oversight.
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Optimal Hedge Ratio
Explore the concept of the optimal hedge ratio in futures hedging, including how to minimize risk by accounting for correlation, basis risk, and real-world market dynamics.
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Hedging Canadian Commodities (Energy, Agriculture)
Discover hedging strategies for Canada's energy and agricultural markets, exploring futures contracts, basis differentials, and real-world examples for risk management.
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Cross-Hedging Strategies
Explore how to hedge exposures when exact futures contracts do not exist, leveraging statistically correlated proxy instruments in agricultural, currency, or other financial markets.
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CIRO Reporting Requirements for Hedging Exemptions
Explore how CIRO oversees hedging practices in Canadian futures markets, including margin reliefs, position limit exemptions, and compliance with bona fide hedging reporting.
